Leadership †Making the Business Successful

Leadership has different meanings to various authors.   Leadership could be defined as influence, that is, the art of process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals (Bass, 1981).   Although their approach to leadership theory is primarily one of analyzing lead ­ership style, Fred E. Fiedler and his associates at the University of Illinois have suggested a contingency theory of leadership (Fiedler, 1967). The theory holds that people become leaders not only because of the attributes of their personalities but also because of various situational factors and the interactions between leaders and group members. On the basis of his studies, Fiedler de ­scribed three critical dimensions of the leadership situation that help determine what style of leadership will be most effective (Miner, 1982): Position power is the degree to which the power of a position, as distinguished from other sources of power, such as personality or expertise, enables a leader to get group members to comply with directions; in the case of managers, this is the power arising from organizational authority. As Fiedler points out, a leader with clear and considerable position power can obtain good followership more easily than one without such power (Bowers, 1975). With the dimension of Task structure, Fiedler had in mind the extent to which tasks can be clearly spelled out and people held responsible for them. If tasks are clear (rather than vague and unstructured), the quality of performance can be more easily controlled and group members can be held more definitely responsible for performance. Fiedler regarded the dimension of Leader-member relations as the most im ­portant from a leader’s point of view, since position power and task structure may be largely under the control of an enterprise. It has to do with the extent to which group members like, trust, and are willing to follow a leader (Yuki, 1981). To approach his study, Fiedler set forth two major styles of leadership. One of these is primarily task-oriented; that is, the leader gains satis ­faction from seeing tasks performed. The other is oriented primarily toward achiev ­ing good interpersonal relations and attaining a position of personal prominence. Favorableness of situation was defined by Fiedler as the degree to which a given situation enables a leader to exert influence over a group. To measure leadership styles and determine whether a leader is chiefly task-oriented, Fiedler used an unusual testing technique (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). He based his findings on two sources: (1) scores on the least preferred coworker (LPC) scale – these are ratings made by people in a group as to those with whom they would least like to work; and (2) scores on the assumed similarity between opposites (ASO) scale–ratings based on the degree to which leaders see group members as being like themselves, on the assumption that people will like best, and work best with, those who are seen as most like them ­selves. Today the LPC scale is most commonly used in research. In developing this scale, Fiedler asked respondents to identify the traits of a person with whom they could work least well (Fiedler, 1967). Leadership performance depends as much on the organization as it depends on the leader's own attributes. Except perhaps for the unusual case, it is simply not meaningful to speak of an effective leader or an ineffective leader; we can only speak of a leader who tends to be effective in one situation and ineffective in another. If we wish to increase organizational and group effectiveness we must learn not only how to train leaders more effectively but also how to build an organizational environment in which the leader can perform well (Indvik, 1986). In a highly structured situation, such as in the military during a war, where the leader has strong position power and good relations with members, there is a favorable situation in which task orientation is most appropriate. The other ex ­treme, an unfavorable situation with moderately poor relations, an unstructured task, and weak position power, also suggests task orientation by the leader, who may reduce anxiety or ambiguity that could be created by the loosely structured situation. Between the two extremes, the suggested approach emphasizes cooperation and good relations with people. To conclude, leadership is the art or process of influencing people so that they contribute willingly and enthusiastically toward group goals. Leadership requires followership. The approach to leadership, built on the assumption that leaders are the product of given situations, focuses on the study of situations. Fiedler’s contingency approach takes into account the position power of the leader, the structure of the task, and the relations between the leader and group members. This would make the followers to like, trust and follow the leader. The conclu ­sion is that there is no one best leadership style and that managers can be successful if placed in appropriate situations. References Bass, Barnard M. 1981. Stodgill’s Handbook of Leadership: A survey of theory and research, Rev. ed, New York: The Free Press. Bowers, David G. 1975. â€Å"Hierarchy, Function and the Generalizability of Leadership Prac ­tices,† in James G. Hunt and Lars L. Larson (eds.), Leadership Frontiers (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1975), pp. 167-180. Fiedler, Fred E. 1967. A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967). Indvik, Julie. 1986. â€Å"Path Goal Theory of Leadership: A Meta-Analysis,† in John A. Pearce II and Richard B. Robinson, Jr. (eds.), Academy of Management Best Papers-Proceedings, Forty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Chicago (Aug. 13-16, 1986), pp. 189-192. Kirkpatrick, Shelley A. & Locke, Edwin A. 1991. â€Å"Leadership: Do Traits Matter?† Academy of Management Executive (May 1991), pp. 48-60. Miner, John B. 1982. Theories of Organizational Structure and Process, Hinsdale, Ill.: The Dryden Press, Chap.2. Yuki, Gary A. 1981.   Leadership in Organization, (Englewood Cliffs, N.]: Prentice-Hall, chap. 4.                                       

Effectiveness and Impact of Virtual Teams Essay

Technology is consistently evolving and impacting many organizations worldwide. It has changed many aspects in the workplace, including work styles, communication, and teamwork. Communication has been transformed into the ways of the virtual world, directly affecting group dynamics. Organizations often form teams of employees to serve a variety of purposes and reach goals in a more effective manner than independent work. Teams used to work strictly through face-to-face interactions, but with growing technology, virtual teams have been created and are used fairly often. â€Å"A virtual team is any team whose member interactions are mediated by time, distance, and technology. The core feature is not the technology, but that the team works together on a task while physically separated. Group members can communicate through e-mail, voice mail, video conferencing, electronic bulletin boards, and intranets.† (Levi, 2007, p. 258) Many research studies have been done to assess the effectiveness of virtual teams, examining the positive and negative aspects. This literature review is aimed to analyze several articles where researchers have explored many components of virtual teams and their impact. Vroman and Kovacich (2002) wrote an article that analyzed â€Å"the interactions of a virtual interdisciplinary team.† They explain computer-mediated communication (CMC) to be the basis of virtual teams, which they then compare to face-to-face teams. They examined the Interdisciplinary Training for Health Care for Rural Areas (ITHCRA) project, which is a team comprised of many different types of health professionals (e.g. clinical psychologist, nurse practitioner, nutritionist, etc.) The team’s ultimate goal was to develop an interdisciplinary health care curriculum, solely using CMC. ITHCRA functioned the same as any other team working together would, and faced the same challenges and developmental processes (forming, storming, norming, performing, and transforming). They additionally had to learn the ways of the new communication technology, which was an obstacle for many of the group members. The developmental process of the virtual team was similar to that of a face-to-face team, however, a number of differences were found. The forming phase was very  typical for team development. Team building and norm development took precedent of the project tasks initially. They had met face-to-face once, and after looking at their communication after this occurred, it was obvious they had formed social relationships and were more committed. This raised the question: what would have happened if the face-to-face meeting did not take place? It may have been more effective to have two groups in this study so comparisons could be made (e.g. one group solely virtual, the other group allowed 1-3 face-to-face meetings). It is hard to determine whether certain aspects of team development would have taken place without the opportunity to see their team members in a more personal way. Storming took place as well, which is when teams face certain conflicts. There were no apparent differences for this development in the virtual team. Norming, performing, and transforming phases of development all contributed to the team’s success and helped them complete their tasks and reach their goals. Vroman and Kovacich (2002) provided a good analysis of ITHCRA and the ways in which it was successful and where the members were challenged. They portrayed virtual teams as being more convenient, effective, and less time consuming when completing tasks. However, it allows for less personal contact and can be more difficult for some to communicate and fulfill the expectations of the group project. It may have been more effective to have ITHCRA communicate solely through CMC and compare them to a team with the same tasks and goals, but who communicated through a combination of CMC and face-to-face meetings. More valid results would be accessible to draw more accurate conclusions. It was interesting to use a interdisciplinary team, however, it may have acted as another variable besides CMC, which would then alter the results. Kirkman, Rosen, Tesluk, and Gibson (2004) conducted a research study on the impact of team empowerment on virtual team performance. â€Å"Team empowerment is defined as increased task motivation that is due to team members’ collective, positive assessments of their organizational tasks (Kirkman & Rosen, 2002). They examined team empowerment through the teams potency, meaningfulness, autonomy, and impact to determine its’ impact on process improvement and customer satisfaction. Kirkman et al. (2004) studied a service organization that utilized high technology and frequently formed virtual teams to complete the company’s tasks and goals. Each team member had different roles within the organization and was separated from each  other geographically. The researchers moderated the effects of face-to-face meetings to examine the relationship between team empowerment and both process improvement and customer satisaction. Kirkman et al. (2004) used surveys, observation, a team empowerment measure they had created, and customer satisfaction and process improvement scorecards to test their hypotheses, which were that 1. Team empowerment will have a positive relation to virtual team process improvement, 2. Team empowerment will have a positive relation to virtual team customer satisfaction, and 3. The number of team’s face-to-face meetings will alter the relationship between team empowerment and process improvement (the fewer face-to-face meetings the stronger the relationship), and 4. The number of team’s face-to-face meetings will alter the relationship between team empowerment and customer satisfaction (the fewer face-to-face meetings the stronger the relationship). Their results indicated support for hypotheses one, two, and three, but did not support the fourth hypothesis. The researchers produced a well-designed study with significant, meaningful results that help contribute to the understanding of virtual teams. They operationally defined all of the terms and measures to provide an equal understanding for everyone. It seems that virtual teams have many positive characteristics that are more effective compared to the common face-to-face teams. With the rising technology, virtual teams may become the norm as researchers continue to understand their components and wire them for optimal success. Montoya-Weiss, Massey, and Song (2001) wrote an article on the findings of their research study. They â€Å"examined the effects of temporal coordination on virtual teams supported by an asynchronous communication technology.† They measured the mechanism â€Å"process structure† to determine the relationship between conflict management behavior and virtual team performance. They measured conflict management individually for each team member through a questionnaire they created. They defined their dependent variable, virtual team performance, as â€Å"the quality of the team rationale used to support the team decision.† They examined the range, depth, and organization for each team decision. Lastly, they observed and analyzed all communication among the virtual team. Montoya-Weiss et al. (2001) had five hypotheses total, which were tested through statistical analysis. They predicted that for all conflict management behaviors, a positive interaction would result.

No Child Left Behind Act Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

No Child Left Behind Act - Research Paper Example The assessment of the basic skills of the students as well as national achievement standard is the highlight of the act. "No Child Left Behind (NCLB) emphasizes standardized testing to measure improvements in reading, math and the sciences. It consists of four general principles: teacher quality, student testing, scientifically based research and public school choice." (Background: No Child Left Behind). Therefore, the NCLB has been an essential step in elevating the performance of American schools and student with federal oversight and strict penalties for poor performance. The act sets standards by each individual state, rather than a national achievement standard and takes steps in improving the quality of education. According to the educational practitioners, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) law has had a sweeping impact on U.S. public school classrooms. "It affects what students are taught, the tests they take, the training of their teachers and the way money is spent on educatio n." (What the No Child Left Behind Law Means for Your Child). In conclusion, the No Child Left Behind Law has been a fundamental development in the educational spectrum of the US and it aims at the overall improvement of the quality of education in the nation.

The Changes in the Economic Environment of Nokia Essay

The Changes in the Economic Environment of Nokia - Essay Example It is used in finding out how much the company is leveraged in debt, comparing what is owed to what is owned. This is a measure to find out the company’s ability to borrow and repay money.As shown, Nokia has 40% debt leverage in 2009. This figure is 29% higher than its D/E in 2009, and a significant departure from conservative borrowings from 2000 to 2007. Its long-term debt in 2009 amounted to 4.439B representing a 400% increase from 2008 of 861M.Nokia uses the international capital markets to finance investments. The company sells stock, issue bonds, and obtain loans from commercial banks. The Nokia is a public limited liability company listed on the Helsinki, Frankfurt, and New York stock exchanges. Recent share price is offered at 9.64 â‚ ¬ (Yahoo finance) Nokia has the same outstanding shares of 3.7bil for 2009 and 2008. This is a decline from its previous years’ outstanding shares which are above 4bil. from 2000 to 2007. (msn) Based on the figures derived from the company’s financial statements for 10 years, the company is still in a healthy financial position. Its short-term operations have been affected by the economic recession as shown by the decline of sales and revenue for 2009 and 2008. Yet, the company has remained financially strong to pay its obligations. In 2009, the company has changed its strategy in a capital structure using more debts in financing its resources. As it is, the company is 40% leveraged and 60%f equity. At 40%, debt leverage is still a good balance as it is not more than the total equity. The company tends to have additional benefits in this capital structure such as tax advantage. In conclusion, Nokia can be a safe investment because of its strength has been in business for many years. It operates worldwide and does not concentrate on US market alone. Its weakness lies in technology which is slow in responding to competition’s design. Opportunities remain strong for worldwide operations as communication is an important commodity for everybody. The threat is the fast-changing technology that has to be addressed by Nokia through continued research and development.

Quentin Tarantino Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Quentin Tarantino - Essay Example He was given exposure to different kind of films and he was also influenced by the pop culture, which still influences many people. He called it a day as far as schooling was concerned at the age of 17 and wanted to pursue his career in acting, he supported himself financially during this time. When he turned 22, the genius in him started to show, he started writing scenes which were used in the practice of his acting classes and people also admired him because of his knowledge in the field of movies. All this came to him naturally, right from his childhood films played a big role in shaping up his life. Tarantino did not get success instantly; he literally wasted many years writing scripts for his debut as a director. The year 1991 saw him write Reservoir Dogs, an upcoming producer by the name Lawrence Bender took notice of Tarantino's work and asked him for a month's time to turn his work into a fully-fledged movie. All the plans became successful and the movie was shot in less tha n a month in exotic locations in Los Angeles. The movie has a star cast, which included stars like Michael Madsen, Steve Buscemi, Tim Roth, Laurence Tierney, Chris Penn and the movie was a huge success and turned around the fortune of Tarantino. 1997 saw him writing and directing Jackie Brown. The movie was based on Elmore Leonard's novel Rum Punch, the stars of the movie got nominated for academy awards and this goes to show that the film was a very successful one. "Tarantino's first career goal was to become an actor, and he has continued to play roles in his own films and in the work of others. He was the thief known only as Mr. Brown (That's a little too close to 'Mr.Shit,') in Reservoir Dogs and the jittery Jimmie Dimmick, saddled with a fresh corpse, Pulp Fiction. In the Man from Hollywood section of Four Rooms, he was a blow-hard movie director. He also played bandit George Clooney's loony brother, Richard Gecko, in Robert Rodriguez's From Dusk Till Dawn, played the title rol e in Jack Baren's Destiny Turns on the Radio (1995) and appeared in Spike Lee's Girl 6 (1996). Quentin Tarantino became very renowned after the release of Pulp Fiction (1994), the movie did really very well and shot Quentin Tarantino into the limelight. The writers of the movie were Quentin Tarantino and Roger Avary. The movie achieved the biggest prize which any director can dream of, which is undoubtedly The Oscar Award. "This film oozes inspired casting, of actors who either played against type or at least became offbeat and edgy in ways in which we hadn't hitherto known them. Then, through the editing process, by telling the story in a maximum non-linear way, out of time, reducing the film to a series of seeming disjointed non-sequential vignettes, each vignette featuring the aforementioned snappy dialog delivered by the aforementioned hand-picked edgy actors. It is only after watching the entirety of the movie, and reflecting back on it, does the gestalt emerge for the viewer. And, it may take more than one viewing to get there. Then, lastly, by topping it all off with a snazzy soundtrack. That's how. Add all that stuff together and you get Pulp Fiction.  

College Math Unit 2IP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

College Math Unit 2IP - Essay Example The number of hours of television watched the most peaked at the age of 15. C. Find the slope of the line. Show all work to receive full credit. Slope = y2 - y1 / x2 - x1 (6 - 18)/ (35 -20) (-12)/(15) = -4/5 D. Write a sentence that explains the meaning of the slope. The negative sign in the slope shows a negative relationship between age and number of hours TV watched. The figure shows that as a person age by four years he gives up five hours of TV watched. E. Find the equation of the line that represents the number of hours of television watched. Show all work to receive full credit. y = mx + b For b. 6 = (-4/5) (35) + b 6 = -28 + b B = 34 Thus, the equation is: y = -4/5x + 34 4. The equationrepresents the total cost to run Johnny's Pizza place for a day. C symbolizes the total cost to open the pizza place, and x stands for the number of pizzas sold. A. Find the y-intercept of this graph and explain what it means in the context of the problem. Show all work to receive full credit. y intercept = value of y when x = 0 Thus, C = 2.50 x + 300 Substitute x with 0, C = 2.50 (0) + 300 C = 300. In the context of the problem, the y intercept shows the costs that Johnny's Pizza place will incur if it produces no pizza. Economically speaking, this refers to the fixed costs which the company has to incur even if it doesn't operate. B. Explain the slope of the line. The slope of the line is 2.50. This is the variable cost of producing a unit of pizza. It means that a pizza produced will add an additional 2.50 to the total costs. C. Graph the equation. 5. The director of a summer day camp estimates that 100 children will join if the camp fee is $250, but for each...However, the three in consideration even shrink from 21feet to 16 inches from years 20 to 25. In this year, the tree can be considered old and more brittle thus, becoming more easily destroyed by natural calamities like typhoon. The graph shows the relationship between the age of an individual and the number of hours the individual spends watching television. It can be seen that the survey or study covers an age group of 15 to 35 years old as plotted in the x ayis. The y axis shows the number of hours of TV watched which ranges from 0 to 25 hours. In the context of the problem, the y intercept shows the costs that Johnny's Pizza place will incur if it produces no pizza. Economically speaking, this refers to the fixed costs which the company has to incur even if it doesn't operate. A. Determine the linear equation that will represent the number of children who will enroll at a given fee. Hint: To write the slope, you need two points on the line. Show all work to receive full credit.

Relevance of Multilateralism in Australia Essay

Relevance of Multilateralism in Australia - Essay Example Multilateralism fosters the importance of equality in nations worldwide, and this is significant to Australia because it assists the in improving the security of the country. The greatest security hazard to Australia and the world is terrorism, which is gravely opposed by multilateralism. Economic excellence of Australia has been prejudiced by multilateralism that has seen the country work together with other states to coalesce and exchange brilliant ideas. Strong multilateralism recommendations have assisted in solving the global challenges. Hence, multilateralism is a significant aspect in Australia, since it promotes tranquility and growth in nationalized development. Importance of regional multilateralism institutions (APEC, ARF, ASEAN +3, EAS) to Australia The regional multilateralism institutions were founded to promote geopolitics and economy of the countries involved. Australia has benefitted immensely through this association in dissimilar ways such as accelerated the econom ic expansion to country through making it stable throughout the decades. It has also promoted the cultural and social interaction with other countries, especially those that are members of APEC. Peaceful agreements have been met through the existence of the association in when disputes arises. The regional multilateralism organizations have assisted in defining the boundaries disputes between the member states. This has been achieved through holding conferences where they make deliberations on their problems. APEC promotes unanimity between the Asian Pacific States as evidenced in the organizational objectives (Malik, 2007). EAS is the newest formed multilateralism organization, which its main goal is to foster strategic dialogue between members. The institution also promotes joint effort between the member States such as alleviating national disasters. ARF assists in protecting the right of a state to grow economically without facing a threat from other state. Australian Relation w ith the bodies The Australian association with these bodies is decisive to the conduct of Australian regional diplomacy to the multilateralism institutions, since it allows free interface with other neighboring states. 2. Australian-Malaysian relation in the post- Mahathir era The Australian-Malaysian relation in the post-Mahathir era has faced many challenges. The history of the poor relation between the two countries began when Mahathir Muhammad became the prime minister of Malaysia. His administration came up with many government projects that improved the infrastructure of the country and increased the employment opportunities to the Malaysian citizens. The relationship was appalling, because Mahathir’s governance was against the western political interests and financial policies, and this was the main reason why the relationship was critical. There was a lot of mix-up between the two countries, negatively affecting their economic ties. The countries have poor security co operation that poses a solemn threat in promoting communism between the countries (Lopez, 2009). Although the relationship has improved appreciably, the two countries have to interrelate often to foster unity between the countries.

Analysis of the poem The Jabberwocky Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis of the poem The Jabberwocky - Essay Example A closer look at the first two sentences reveals that the words are not orderly organized making readers to question their originality as they are far strange from the ordinary world. Going down to line six, the poet is making an allusion of an enemy whose identity is known by using illusion as a style â€Å"other than equipped with rather nasty jaws and claws†. In line six of the poem, the poet goes further to give an explanation of the features of the monsters he is alluding about giving the audience a clue that whatever he is describing is not from this ordinary world. Secondly, the poet uses sound and word play to give more meaning to his poem. An example is that in line one, the poet uses a word like portmante ua which is derived from two words which contributes in giving the word force and meaning when being read by the audience. In line twenty three, the poet uses sound play to show the expression of joy. An example is the use of frabjous instead of fabulous. The conflict arising from the poem is that between good and evil. This is presented by the hero and the jabberwork who is considered the evil in the poem. An analysis into the two themes shows that conflict only arises when the two, hero and jabberwork meets. Therefore, the poem brings out the element of an ordinary man standing against a beast which is not known to this world. Surprisingly, the conflict manifest itself as the hero, human being is forced to fight with something which lacks sense in the world as it is an imaginary creature created in the mind of the poet. The theme of violence is also present in the poem because towards its climax. In the second stanza, its sets up the theme as the protagonist of the poem prepare to face the unknown beast into the wild. This when interpreted simply means that the protagonist was going to start a conflict between him and beast. Moreover, we notice that the hero at the end manages to

About FedEx and UPS and who has better financial health Essay

About FedEx and UPS and who has better financial health - Essay Example Both companies have negligible difference in paying off their creditors in AP turnover. Liquidity is the ability of the company to cover its operation and its obligations. In this aspect UPS fared better in the previous two years compared to FedEx (1.70 to 1.60, 1.96 to 1.70) indicating the financial stability of the company. It is supported by a better financial position with a cash ratio that higher than its liability compared to FedEx (.62 to .39, .57 to .48). This better financial position reflects in UPS higher oeperatoing cash flow ratio compared to FedEx (1.09 to .83 in 2011) indicating its ability to cover its operation and short term debts with its available cash. Ultimately, a company will be valued by its shareholder by its profitability or ability to give returns to its investors. In this aspect, UPS clearly dominated FedEx in all aspects of profitability that includes ROA (Return on Asset), Return on Equity (ROE) and Margin before interest and tax. Of the two companies, UPS is conclusively in a better financial position than FedEx. It is only in the efficiency aspect that FedEx came near UPS in terms of its financial position. With regard to financial vitality and profitability as indicated by liquidity and profitablity ratios, UPS was clearly ahead of FedEx. Its ratio on profitability which is many times over FedEx indicates the company’s ability to profit and give return to its shareholders and is the ultimate indication that it is a better company compared to FedEx . Moreover, UPS profitability is grounded on solid fiscal discipline indicated by its liquidity that it can cover its obligations and supported by its operational efficiency to generate sales with a very competitive (comparable to FedEx) use of its resources thus making it a better company in terms of its financial

The US Dollar will Lose its Status as the Worlds Reserve Currency Term Paper

The US Dollar will Lose its Status as the Worlds Reserve Currency within the Foreseeable Future - Term Paper Example According to the study euro had been getting closer to the US Dollars in terms of bank note circulation. Since its inception during the latter years of 1990s, the currency is found to be soaring high in terms of popularity especially among the Asian nations where almost two-thirds of total Euro bank notes in circulation are concentrated. The table alongside displays ample information to establish Euro is fast surpassing Dollars in terms of its circulation. To emphasise, stock of Euro has increased by 7 percent between 1999 and 2003 while that of Dollars has receded by 6.7 percent between 2001 and 2006. The diagram alongside shows the extents to which different foreign reserves are found to be growing over the years. Growth in Euro is witnessed as reaching a peak during 2002 and exceeding the corresponding rate for US Dollars. â€Å"With the creation of the euro in 1999, and the growth of the US external debt and current account deficits since then, the economic appeal of the dollar as an international currency has become less distinctive†. In fact, during the post Euro era, the position of US dollar has been fast depreciating owing to the fall in its store of value and liquidity. A downfall in the degree of liquidity of the currency accounts for the huge sums of US Dollar reserves that East Asian nations reserve had been maintaining in their reserves; this specifically is the reason behind a fall in the US Dollar circulation. Prior to the introduction of Euro, US Dollars assumed the topmost position in the international arena.  

Empirical Literature Article Review of Leadership Ethics Essay Example for Free

Empirical Literature Article Review of Leadership Ethics Essay The opportunity to evaluate original research serves as one of the many foundations to both scholarly writing and research (Grand Canyon University, 2013). Therefore, to enhance this process I will critique empirical research articles for the purpose of demonstrating the effectiveness in understanding leadership ethics. So, using the literature presented within in the works of â€Å"Predictors of Ethical Code Use and Ethical Tolerance in the Public Sector† by Neal Ashkanasy, Sarah Falkus, and Victor Callan along with â€Å"Advancing Ethics in Public Organizations: The Impact of an Ethics Program on Employees’ Perceptions and Behaviors in a Regional Council† by Itai Beeri, Rachel Dayan, Eran Vigoda-Gadot, and Simcha Werner, and finally, â€Å" An Empirical Study of Leader Ethical Values, Transformational and Transactional Leadership, and Follower Attitudes Toward Corporate Social Responsibility† by Kevin Groves and Michael LaRocca comparisons will be made on the relevance and need for research purposes. In comparison, the authors of each study utilize ethical behaviors for the purpose of comparing relationships, perceptions, and beliefs associated with measures of ethical practice. Furthermore, reasonable justification for conducting the research presented in each study is outlined as evidence from the posed research questions and is validated within the results of each piece of literature reviewed. Posed Research Questions Relating the Authors in the Comparison Similarly, the literature within each study focused on ethical practice and how it used to enhance behavior of individuals within organizations. However, assertions within the scope of the posed research questions present relevant generalizations for each study. For example, Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan (2000) focused on variables that formulated predictive roles of organizational, individual, group, and contextual levels for utilizing formal codes of conduct. These variables were developed to serve as predictors of ethical tolerance as a result of formal code use. Whereas, organizational commitment (OC), organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), and quality of work life (QWL) are the basis in which Beeri, Dayan, Vigoda-Gadot, and Werner (2013) perceive positive relationships are built as ethical resources are generated. Hence, these three areas promote awareness of ethical leadership and decision making in addition to the ethics code. Further, Groves and LaRocca (2011) incorporate the notion of corporate social responsibility by modeling both transformational and transactional leadership styles. Here, the idea is leaders with deontological values of ethics will be perceived as modeling transformational leadership, while leaders with teleological values of ethics are perceived as modeling transactional leadership (Groves et al. , 2011). Although each study assessed various ethical practices, each displays similarities in presenting study results as a means of validating posed questions of research. Sample Populations The results recorded from evaluations used in the sample populations’ highlighted evidence relevant to that of measures needed to verify theory associated with ethical practice. Hence, each study presented the results through a form of statistical analysis in which various test groups within the field of research were used. Moreover, similar methods were incorporated to assess the results of the respondents within all three studies. Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan’s Approach This evaluation involved mailed questionnaires to public sector employees in one State of Australia. The principal method of conducting this study was based on hierarchical regression, and addressed several factors such as: demographic measures, personal ethical values and attitudes, context and group-level variables, and organizational practices (pg. 245, 2000). Given the basis of evidence Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan (2000) used this method of analysis to assert that ethical decisions are more likely to be influenced by employees, versus the effect of group and individual variables. Beeri, Dayan, Vigoda-Gadot, and Werner’s Approach In lieu of the goal to test the relationships between ethics and performance within governments locally, Beeri et al. , (2013) used questionnaires to evaluate the long term effects of an ethics program on employees’ perceptions, and the behavior in one council of an Israeli region. This as a result, stems from awareness of ethical codes, and inclusion of employees in the ethical decision making process. Groves and LaRocca’s Approach Groves and LaRocca (2011) utilized voluntary community-based leadership programs that targeted educational values on ethics. The leaders of these community based programs were emailed a link with instructions for participation with an online questionnaire. The assumption here was that training on both transformational and transactional leadership, in addition to ethical decision making and CSR would now be implemented. Results Analysis All in all, the results displayed by the analysis of each study correspond to the overall effort of the posed research. For example, supported results aligned with study hypotheses, but signified that certain mechanisms underlie the criterion for each of the tested variables on different levels according to Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan (2000). Whereas, Beeri et al. , (2013) report a greater awareness in ethical codes and decision making along with increased organizational commitment is achieved as a result of positive ethical leadership. And finally, Groves and LaRocca (2011) correlated their findings with the original prediction that transformational leadership alone was aligned with the beliefs of followers in view of the corporate social responsibility of stakeholders. Conclusion Study Limitations of Articles To fully appreciate the level of understanding needed to evaluate literature of empirical research, a description of the methodology, research questions and an analysis of results must be presented to determine the validity of the overall analysis. And as such, each study discussed within the contents of this paper has been successful in delivering on all areas to support research efforts. However, there were areas that pose limitations to future research efforts for all three studies. For example, the use of questionnaires may not represent a true assessment of the respondent’s beliefs (Ashkanasy et al. , 2000). Also, issues surrounding anonymity can urface when responding to questions concerning ethical climate (Beeri et al. , 2013). And further, influences set by both common source and common method can stimulate bias in lieu of follower values of CSR (Groves LaRocca, 2011). For future development of the practice The results yield an overall influence within organizations that build on variables to increase ethical standards. However, there are yet underlying issues for democratic organizations that stress the importance of ethics, integrity, and fairness (Beeri et al. , 2013). And recommendations for further study are necessary to promote the continuous effort of influencing follower perceptions toward ethical commitments.

Parent Involvement In Education And Issues Arising Education Essay

Parent Involvement In Education And Issues Arising Education Essay Introduction This small scale research is to consider parental involvement in a childs education and how parents contributions help children to achieve while at school and examines the barriers of parents and school which prevent successful partnerships flourishing. In order to carry out a study that would be relevant to my own practice I have focused on both parents, and teachers perception of parental involvement and the type of partnerships that exist between home and school. I have also briefly looked at the government role, the initiatives and policies that encourage schools and parents to work together. My main focus however, is the barriers that prevent parental involvement. In my proposal, I noted initial key findings, that I wanted to research further, however, after reading a vast amount of literature, time-scales prevented me to look at all areas in depth. My interest in this area first began when in a parent role I used to listen to children read once a week at a local primary school. Over the years in my role as a parent, I have seen more encouragement to be involved with my local primary school that my own child attends. Offers of courses in Maths and Literacy have been available, as well as many after school activities such as clubs, or invitations to school events outside of school time. My initial reading, led to me research commissioned by DCSF (2007) which showed that 51% of parents questioned felt very involved in their childs education, compared to 27% in 1963 (DES). This would indicate that parents are now seen as an integral part of a childs school life. Government policies involve parents through consultations about aspects of behaviour and school uniform, and the White Paper (2011) has further still increased parental power. There are still barriers, however, that prevent parents becoming more involved fully in their childs education. In the same research (DCSF 2007) found that 61% of parents indicated that they would like to be more involved with school. I wanted to understand why parents perceived that they were not involved enough with their childs education. I also wanted to see how teachers felt when working with parents and their perceptions and what barriers, if any teachers also had. My study focused on two primary schools, one rural school serving villages in Lincolnshire with 100 pupils, and a large town school serving mainly a large council estate with 400 pupils. Research (Quote) suggests, that parent engagement is higher when a child is attending primary school, and this lowers as children enter the secondary sector. For purposes of my study I have not included this element due to size and time constraints. I have also not considered socio- economic background but I have found that this area has overlapped in much of my reading. However Cosin Hayle (1997) indicate that if a child has a parent who feels involved, and participates with their childs education, benefits will be seen regardless of background. Schools also have a part to play and Ofsted (2007) suggest that all schools value parental involvement but the best schools offer resourcefulness, flexibility and determination in their engagement with parents. In order to assess how schools encourage parents to be involved, evidence was collected through interviews with both Head-teachers of the schools. Class Teachers were also invited to take part in interviews; however of the eight teachers invited only two were interviewed with rest offering to complete a questionnaire. Time constraints were the general reason for this. Literature Review The importance of parental involvement It has long been recognised since the publication of the Plowden Report (1967) that the importance of Parental involvement in education brings lots of benefits to children. This term covers a wide range of issues but generally is defined as how a parent uses available resources with the intention of improving a childs learning. (Docking, 1997) This involvement may take place in or outside school. Parental involvement at home may include activities such as discussions with their child about school, helping with homework or reading, or working on tasks such as cooking, make and do projects or being part of the wider community and using the facilities that may be on offer. Involvement at school may be attending parents evenings, volunteering in the classroom, or helping with decision making, such as belonging to the PTA or on a higher level working within a Parent governor role. Studies have shown that children who have parents that take an active interest in their education benefit in a number of ways. These children are usually higher achievers (Ballantine, 1999; Docking, 1997 😉 attendance is higher, (Haynes, Comer, Hamilton-Lee, 1989), homework is readily completed (Rich,1988;) and self- esteem and confidence is high. (Hoover-Dempsey,1997; Walker,2000; Jones Reed, 2002). The Labour Government also recognised the importance of parental involvement, they emphasised that parents are active partners in the production of educated children (McNamara et al, 2000; p474). Excellence in Schools (DFEE, 1997) states that parents are a childs primary educators, and parents are key partners in the modern school system. Many initiatives have been aimed at parental involvement such as Sure-Start. The Barriers of Parental Involvement- Parents perceptions Parents beliefs and how they view education, can act as barriers to effective parental involvement. The way parents view their role in their childs education is crucial. Parents, who believe that their role is to ensure their child attends school, and the rest is up to the school, are often not willing to be actively involved in their childs schooling. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) reported that this attitude is more prevalent in some communities than others, but did not attribute low income as a factor. Clarke (1983) found that if pupils were high achievers, the parents supported their learning at home and interacted with school in a positive way. Clark found that parents of high achieving of pupils had a greater belief than other parents because they feel their help makes significant contributions. All the parents in Clarks research were from low economic backgrounds- this research would indicate that income is not a factor for lack of parental involvement. Hoover-Dempsey and S andler (1997) point out that parents who have low levels of belief in their ability to help their children are likely to have little contact with school because they feel that such involvement will not give positive outcomes for their children. There may be many reasons for the lack of confidence that parents may feel. Language barriers may lead to a parent feeling they cannot communicate effectively with teachers, or negative experiences through their own schooling can often be the problem. Parents may also take the view that their academic competence is not high enough to effectively help their children. This view is expressed more often as children progress from primary to secondary school and academic work becomes more advanced (Eccles and Harold, 1993.). All of the above views act as a barrier to Parental involvement, despite research that acknowledges support for a childs learning does not need a high level of education from parents. (Clark 1983; Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler 1997; Hornby 2000) Another barrier, which is important to involvement in their childs education, is the views parents hold about their childs intelligence. (Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler 1997) If parents hold the view that their child is intelligent through luck, they will not see the point of getting involved. Alternatively, parents who hold views that achievement and effort are linked and that this can be developed are more likely to be positive about parental involvement. This view can be linked with child rearing in general and parents who hold beliefs that the role of a parent is the way they bring up children that is very important, usually are considered to have positive views, and make considerable impact on their childs development overall (Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler 1997). Parental barriers may be due to circumstances, parents who left school early or felt they didnt succeed at school may be indifferent to helping their own child. They may be unconfident in their own knowledge and skills, theref ore unable to help with homework or school projects (Green et al, 2007). This attitude also may prevent parents working with teachers as they feel that they are not qualified enough. Other commitments such as work can also cause barriers. When parents are unemployed, money could be an issue as they may not be able to afford a car or to pay babysitters in order to get to school meetings. For parents with jobs it is often time constraints and the kind of jobs they have that cause issues. There is often less time to be involved at home or school, as parents maybe for example, too tired at the end of the day to help children with homework or have constructive discussions about their childs school day (Catsambis, 2001; Green et al. 2007). Finally socio-class, gender and ethnicity, can be seen as barriers to parental involvement, issues relating to differences may play a role and initiatives from Government have aimed to address this (Quote). Barriers- Teachers perceptions Barriers to parental involvement, is not just the responsibility of parents. Teachers also face hurdles that may prevent them having successful partnerships with parents. In order for parental involvement to be successful it is important to look at the role of teachers and their perspective of the partnership. Lazar Slostad, (1999) state that teachers who invest time in working with parents, experience more empowerment within their teaching, report that stress levels are reduced and feel their professional status and authority is appreciated. Additionally teachers reported that they felt the work they did with the children was greatly respected due to parental involvement (Hara and Burke, 1998). For many years teachers have been under the impression that parents do not value education or the job that teachers do. Ascher, 1988; Henderson, Marburger, Ooms,1986 report that many teachers find parents un-cooperative, when issues of discipline arise, and argue that contacting parents is often futile. Teachers fear that when contacted, parents maybe argumentative and hostile, and may have a misguided belief that the problem, if left alone, will not cause confrontations. However, this is the opposite of reality teachers who contact parents when they have a concern usually find parents co-operative and willing to work with the school (Johnson Webster, 1994). Another reason cited is that teachers do not appreciate or fail to understand the importance of parental involvement (Broderick Mastrilli, 1997; Greenwood Hickman, 1991; Hoover-Dempsey, Walker, Jones, Reed, 2002) in home- school links. Much literature on this subject (Hoover-Dempsey, Walker, Jones, Reed; Lazar Slostad, 199 9) discusses communication between home and school is often weak and home visits to really understand families would help to improve this. Parent teacher partnerships As discussed, in order for parental involvement to be effective, teachers and parents must have the same goals. Parental involvement must not just be seen as simplistic desire. Much of the literature that surrounds this area discusses opposing agendas and goals (Wolfendale, 1983; Epstien 2001). Government and schools goals towards parental involvement, maybe so they are accountable to communities, or to promote childrens achievements through league tables. Parents goals are more concerned with their childs happiness, how well they are doing in terms of school work. Montgomery (2009), points that barriers may occur when there is a conflict over ability. Children that are gifted and talented may not be viewed so by their teachers which then causes barriers through frustrations. Equally this may be seen when children are talented in a sport, or musically and do not attend school in order to pursue this. Rudney (2005) discusses teacher goals and states that the focus of teachers in paren tal involvement is through homework, providing a nurturing environment, parent meetings and reports, and attending school events. Parent-teacher meetings provide a good insight to how goals of teachers and parents may differ. Bastiani (1989) has suggested that teachers wish to discuss different things to parents, although both are concerned with the childs progress, their concerns are viewed in different perspectives which then create barriers for involvement later on. Aldeman (1992) discussing the impact of differing goals considers that home-school relationships are based on socialisation, where schools attempt to shape parents attitudes so they enable schooling. He further suggests that underlying agendas often have an impact on parental involvement if the goals are more about meeting the needs of schools rather than individuals. These differences can cause frustrations to both parties and limit parental involvement and partnership successes. Breaking down the barriers As discussed, researchers have identified several types of parental involvement. Epstien (1995) categorized this as parenting, communicating, volunteering, home learning, decision making, and working with the community. Although all of these categories have an impact on a childs learning, not all achieve academic success. The key to success is the relationship that is established between children and parents in the home. (Burns, 2000; Clark, 1983; Norton Nufeld, 2002). High expectations of a childs achievements and making education a priority should be of high importance if barriers are to be broken, (Brown, 1999; Kurdek, Fine, Sinclair, 1995;Muller,1993;Rosenzweig, 2000; Solo, 1997). Evidence is overwhelming that families, who set high expectations for their children, have a high academic success (Clark 1983). This also can been seen in the classroom, and teachers who set high expectations for the children they teach, are often seen as Outstanding (Ofsted,; ) Teachers should empha sise this importance when communicating with parents, and reassure them that their child can reach high levels of academic success (Hughes, 2003; Johnson, 1998). Secondly parents have to take an active role in learning at home (Becker Epstein, 1982; Dornbusch Ritter, 1988; Tizard, Schofeld, Hewison, 1982; Rosenzweig, 2000). Children who have well-structured routines at home do very well at school (Muller,1993). Teachers can help parents to actively get involved by offering specific strategies that parents can use to organise homework, discussions or their time in general. (Finn, 1998). Parents can provide materials or have an area where children can study, but it is critical that they show an interest in their childs school work. Discussions about school not only help parents monitor their childs activities, but more importantly they are showing their child that they care about their progress and what they do (Brown, 1999; Finn, 1998). Teachers can help parents to monitor progres s more readily if they provide parents with information such as homework policies that discuss the type, how much should be done, how it is marked. Parents generally welcome information such as this, as well as knowledge of the work their child will be doing over the school year (Loucks 1992). This type of information could be presented via school newsletters and many schools are using this method as part of parental involvement strategies. Lastly, parents and teachers need to emphasise the importance of effort over ability (Stevenson, 1983). Dweck (1986) noted that children who attribute success and failure to effort rather than ability gain satisfaction, will seek challenges and will overcome obstacles that they may face. Parents nor teachers cannot significantly change the ability of pupils, but they can have an important impact on encouragement of effort. Children who have parents and teachers that convey messages of success through effort are usually confident, self-efficient, and strive to be high achievers (Folwer Peterson, 1981). Researches (Darling Steinberg, 1993; Gonzalez, 2002; Robertson, 1997; Rosenzweig, 2000; Zellman Waterman, 1998) have identified a model of parenting, and have termed it as authoritative parenting. This model encompasses all the above points discussed. This model includes setting high expectations, providing emotional support, granting appropriate independence, setting limits, and most importantly acknowledgement of their childs perspectives of home and school. This model appears to be most conducive to academic success. Teachers should encourage parents to follow this model through discussions, helping to strengthen home-school relationships. In conclusion, the importance of parental involvement in a childs academic success is inarguable. The literature available clearly identifies the benefits of parent participation, outlines the obstacles facing parent and home relationships, and has made some suggestions in order for th e barriers to be broken down. It is an unfortunate fact that after much research over the decades some parents are still disengaged from their childs school life. In order to include all parents, the classroom teacher has a major role to play, and is the key to changing the level of parental participation. Teachers have the skills and strategies necessary for creating successful partnerships, with those who are so critical to a childs success in school, the parents. Methodology The participants of this study were parents of children who attended either school, or teachers, including heads, who are part of the school staff. Both schools offer a positive approach to parental involvement, with the rural school having an emphasis on homework. Both schools gave the researcher permission to carry out surveys through questionnaires, and semi structured interviews. Diaries were given to parents 5 from each school, after asking parents if they wished to participate. All participants were assured of confidentiality verbally, and it was made clear on paper-work which parents were required to fill in. A letter was sent to both Heads also seeking permission to conduct a small study. This is accordance to Ethical guidelines (Cohen, 2000; Woolley, 2010). Prior to the study taking place, a pilot questionnaire was emailed to 10 parents that had children. The questions asked, were based around my initial reading, and after receiving the responses, I realised that I had only focused on the broad issues of parental involvement, and therefore needed to change the questions in order to collect precise data to answer my question. Once I devised my questionnaire on agreement with both schools, parents were invited to take one and complete it and return back to school office. I had originally wanted to use a random selection processes using class lists, however after consideration I decided that as a cross-section of parents went into the school, on a daily basis so my data would still be valid. Each questionnaire had a standardised set of questions (talk about this not always getting the correct response and quote) Problems arose in the speed of responses, however all participants did respond and 30 completed questionnaires were returned from each school. The homework diaries gave me another set of complications, I wanted to assess the activities that enhance childrens learning and how parents achieved this, however, (talk about parents may lie to feel better, or feel they have to write something in fear of not looking like a good parent relate back to model in journal. The sample overall was not large enough to equate real findings to empirical research, however there has been some similarities which would concur with the evidence collected. Throughout my design and research I kept ethical issues at the front of my mind, this is critical in any research which is undertaken, to protect all who are involved. Analysis of Findings Conclusions and Recommendations

The extent to which research influences policy

The extent to which research influences policy Discuss the extent to which effective development policy depends on good research Introduction In development, for one to know what aids development, why a particular system works and how effective an approach taken towards improving development is, a proper research has to have been done. Development policy is a decision made or designed to improve a condition from a problematic state to a better or an improved form. Research is said to be ‘a careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something’ (Merriam-Webster). Some types of research done are reviewing existing research, field experiments, secondary analysis (reviewing information from existing archives), qualitative methods, survey, case studies, and cost-benefit analysis (research done to determine the cost and benefit from an action), amongst others (Dukeshire and Thurlow 2002). Research is an important part of policy making because without research, pressing policy questions will not be answered as it’s hard to make a policy without identifying a problem, the context in which the problem is based and possible solutions that a policy could enforce. In a research at the IMF in 2011, Moises Schwartz, the director of IEO states that â€Å"Research is at the heart of innovation and improving policymaking†. He goes on to say that research, at the IMF, helps develop and improve conceptual models that serve as the foundation for policy recommendations. In this paper research will be used in relation to evidence-based This paper discusses how research influences policy, the gap between researchers and policy makers and how good research is needed for effective development policy making. Research and Development policy One cannot make a policy if one doesn’t know what that policy is to address. Without research, policy makers will not be informed about the problem that requires a solution through careful planning and decision making. The way research is done and presented could influence deeply the policy making process (Dukeshire and Thurlow 2002). For the creation of effective development policy, not just a policy under huge probability that it might work, proper research has to be done. Furthermore, for the improvement of quality of life and reduction in poverty, a proper use of research and evidence in the making and practice of development policy, is required (Court et al 2004). Research promotes credibility and also plays an important role on how policymaking is thought of by country authorities and also, research improves the gathering and spread of global knowledge (IMF 2011). Effective development policy requires researches that are relevant to the particular policy question. Researches done for a specific development policy question will look at the problem from all spheres, gather knowledge about the problem from the place the problem is situated and the people it affects, carry out a thorough case study and could also ask indigenous people to suggest solutions as they know better what will work for them and then make recommendations which will influence the development policy making. This entire process will ensure that the policy is effective as the decision will be based on research that addressed the problem directly and evidence produced. People in a community, through participatory approach, a research technique, could identify problems in their society and proffer solutions to these problems (green et al 1995; Frankish et al 1997). The 1999 white paper on modernizing government adopted evidence based policy as part of its philosophy as it expressed its expectations of policy makers to bring up new ideas, take a different approach to the way things have been done in the past he use of research in the policy making process and also to create policies that will proffer effective long term solutions. Research helps policy makers be well informed about a situation a policy is to address however â€Å"†¦there is nothing a government hates more than to be well-informed for it makes the process of arriving at decisions much more complicated and difficult† ( Skidelsky 1992). In my own opinion, research restrains the government from making a â€Å"one fit all† policy. It is easier for a government or donor institutions to make a ‘one fit all’ policy than going through the process of research, gaining adequate knowledge about a particular problem and having to make policies that fit specifi c contexts or societies and not been able to make a general policy that is not based on specific contexts or a countries specificity. In basil jones paper on linking research to policy, he says to achieve effectiveness and efficiency better sector work has to be done alongside research and analysis in development process which will in turn influence policy making. Without research or proper knowledge of a development problem, it is hard to make right decisions that will enable effective solutions. There is a great link between research and policy making although, it has been said that there is a gap between policy makers and researchers. It said that researchers make their findings inaccessible, sometimes lengthy, in a different language and uneasy to decipher just in time for policy decisions (Jones, 2011). Also, researchers do not research on problems facing policy makers but answer questions based on the tools and resources they have (World Bank 2010). Development policies are made based on finding solutions to development problems and research seeks to study and find possible and optimum solutions to those problems. Thus, without proper communication between the researchers and policy makers, it will be impossible to make an effective development policy as it is impossible to make a developmental progress if these two actors are working individually or separately. Conclusion it has been noted that governments and donor institutions tend to make ‘one fit all’ policies that will cut across different countries without taking into consideration the different countries peculiarity or its institutional context and sometimes are accused of making policies based on existing data from doctored research plans and conclusions that fit an existing policy or research done before without making room for new researches (Brettenwoods project, 2011). For example, the prevalent view amongst staffs of the IMF is that research findings need to be in relation with current IMF policies and evaluations done at the IMF showed that some researches were done with the conclusion and an already present policy in mind and some researches had different conclusions and recommendations separate from the analysis done in the research (IMF 2011). Furthermore, some NGOs have distorted the policy making process which renders the policy incapable and in turn creating negative e ffect on the poor by not engaging in research based evidence (Harper 2001). Above, it was noted that there was a significant gap between policy makers and researchers which needed to be bridged. Bridging the gap between these two actors In the development process could be done by making good use of researches that have been done and researchers communicating their findings to policy makers(court and young 2006). Also these donors should not make it all about the funding but also gaining or gathering and sharing new knowledge which can only be gotten from good research (Jones 2011). Policy questions should be the basis for a research and not just research based on the resources available to the researcher or what attracts the interest of the researcher at that time. Furthermore, in considering the future of development, results that influence policy and practice and relevant to poor people’s needs could be gotten by the improving the researchers effectiveness to produce such results. This was stated in a 2008 research strategy of DFID. Finally in answering the question to which extent effective development policy depends on good research, before a policy is made, there has to be an evidence of a problem and the evidence of the problem and knowledge gathered about the problem is held in mind before a decision is made to improve the condition of a problem, so basically there cannot be a policy without a research of some kind. Therefore, a development policy depends on research but an effective development policy that will properly address a problem that is being faced will depend on a good and thorough research. This paper has discussed the link and gap between research and policy, the dependency of policy on research and also the benefits of an evidence based policy. References â€Å"Research† Merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. web 26 February 2014 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research Brettenwoods (2011). Evaluations suggest IMF, World Bank research ideologically driven [online] Available: http:// http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2011/09/art-568905/ [Accessed: 24 February 2014] Cabinet office (1999) modernizing government stationary office: London, Ch. 2, Para. 6. Cm 4320. Available at www.cabinet-office.gov.uk/mordengov/whtpaper/index.htm> Court, J. and Young, J. (2006) Bridging research and policy in international development: an analytical and practical framework. Development in Practice, Volume 16, Number 1, February 2006. Court, J., Hovland, I. and Young, J. (2004) Bridging Research and Policy in International Development: Evidence and the Change Process, ITDG. Dukeshire, S. Thurlow, J. (2002). Understanding the Link Between Research and Policy. Rural Communities Impacting Policy Project Frankish, C.J., George, A., Daniel, M., Doyle-Waters, M. Walker, M. (1997). Participatory health promotion research in Canada: A community guidebook. Ottawa, ON: Health Canada, Health Promotion Development Division. Green, L., George, M., Daniel, M., Frankish, J., Herbert, C., Bowie, W. O’Neill, M. (1995). The study of participatory research in health promotion: Review and recommendations for the development of participatory research in health promotion in Canada. Ottawa: The Royal Society of Canada. Harper, C. (2001). Do the Facts Matter? NGOs, Research and Policy Advocacy, in Edwards, M. Gaventa, J., Global Citizen Action. Lynne Reinner Publishers Jones, B. (2011), Linking Research to Policy: The African Development Bank as Knowledge Broker, Series N ° 131, African Development Bank, Tunis, Tunisia. Research at the IMF: relevance and utilization / [prepared by an IEO team led by Ruben Lamdany and Hali Edison]. – Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2011. Skidelsky, R. (1992) John Maynard Keynes; a biography. Vol 2: the economist as saviour, 1920-1937 macilian: London p 630. World Bank (September 2010) â€Å"Research for Development – A World Bank Perspective on Future Direction for Research† Policy Research Working Paper 5437 Yaron, G. And Louise, S. (2008) Good practice in evidence informed policy: An initial review for DFID. 1

Ethics of Accountants and Auditors Essay -- Ethics, Business

In the past there have been several cases in the business environment related to the practices of accountants and auditors who have violated the trust and confidence of the public. A number of studies have been conducted in order to identify the potential factors resulting in unethical, biased or inappropriate decision making and judgments by the professionals. The aim of this paper is to review two relevant academic articles and evaluate the reliability of the claims and assertions made by the authors. The paper follows a critique style in order to gain some knowledge of the topic and enhance skills for a critical assessment of the information provided in research papers and published journals ( Behren & Losen, 2005). The research paper of Pflugrath, Martinov-Bennie & Chen (2007) aims to analyze the impact of organizational codes of ethics on the accountants’ and auditors’ judgments and professional decision making skills. The research which was conducted on a sample of 112 professional accountants and auditing students, indicates that the codes of ethics positively influence the judgments of professional accountants but do not affect the students’ judgments. On the other hand, the paper by Shafer, Morrid & Ketchand (2001) is based on the research that was carried out with professional auditors regarding the impact of their personal values on their ethical judgments and behavioral intentions. The study concludes that personal values do not affect the ethical considerations and judgments of professional auditors. However, the knowledge and the understanding of moral intensity exert an impact on the judgment ability of the professional accountants. Pfflugrath, Martinov-Bennie & Chen (2007) conducted the study basing their d... ...des of ethics which are being set and exercised within the business environment and the perceptions of moral intensity which affect the judgments of the auditors. There are other determinants, as discussed by the articles, like the clients’ pressure and personal interest which may affect the quality of judgments and decision making in the fields of accounting and auditing but it would be shortsighted to ignore the 2 factors that are being discussed. Ethical judgment largely depends on the exercise of codes of ethics which provide autonomy to the auditors and accountants to work in the best interest of the business and not at the discretion of the client’s orders. Moreover, such codes of ethics, if exercised appropriately, may affect the values of auditors and accountants leading to the better and more independent from financial considerations business judgments.

The Decision :: Creative Writing Short Story Essays

The Decision The tall man standing at the edge of the Haunted Forest looked directly at Siggford, waved, and disappeared. Perhaps the villagers were right in advising him to take the long route around the forest instead of cutting through it. Siggford hesitated. He could feel the warmth of the morning sun beating on his back. As he brushed his sandy blond hair off his forehead he found he was already perspiring. Watching the dense forest in front of him, he considered his options. He could travel through the forest in a day, or take three days to walk around it. Shaking his head and rolling his eyes he set out towards the forest. He stayed up too late listening to the villager's tales of these woods. Someone probably made up the stories to discourage curious children from wandering off and getting lost in the trees. Entering the forest he felt uneasy, but nothing seemed unusual as he wandered on through the morning. Around noon he found a stream meandering through a clearing where it ended in a pond. The clear water sparkled invitingly in the sunlight. It reminded him of a diamond he'd seen once. He stooped at the edge of the pond and reached in with both hands to cup the water when he realized what had been bothering him all morning. With his hands poised half way between the pond and his mouth, he strained to catch any sound. He could hear the stream running into the pond, but that was all. As he looked up from the pond a chill ran down his spine as he found himself face to face with the biggest man he'd ever seen. Now why would he call that creature a man? True, it stood on two feet and had hands and a face which resembled a man, but that thing was not a man. It was covered in matted brown fur from head to foot with what appeared to be blood strewn liberally throughout its body. It smelled like a dead animal. Its mouth was closed, but two sharp teeth stuck out over its lower lip. The black eyes stared at Siggford, but they held no thought. Only emotion. It leaned back its head and howled a howl that shook the ground. Or was it just Siggford who was shaking? Before he could move, or even react, the creature grabbed his arm and started pulling him out of the clearing and back through the forest.

Heroic Virtue in Othello Essay -- Othello essays

Heroic Virtue in Othello  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   William Shakespeare’s tragedy Othello puts on exhibit an obvious hero and other not-so-obvious heroes. Let us examine them all in this essay.    The supreme type of hero in this play did not occur overnight to the playwright. Rather he slowly built upon one hero after another in his plays until his work culminated in the Moor. A. C. Bradley, in his book of literary criticism, Shakespearean Tragedy, describes the development of the Shakespearean super-hero in Othello:    And with this change goes another, an enlargement in the stature of the hero. There is in most of the later heroes something colossal, something which reminds us of Michelangelo’s figures. They are not merely exceptional men, they are huge men; as it were, survivors of the heroic age living in a later and smaller world. [. . .] Othello is the first of these men, a being essentially large and grand, towering above his fellows, holding a volume of force which in repose ensures pre-eminence without an effort, and in commotion reminds us rather of the fury of the elements than of the tumult of common human passion. (168)    The character’s attitude toward life is certainly a criterion for heroism. Is he heroic in what he does? H. S. Wilson in his book of literary criticism, On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy, discusses the general’s heroic attitude in the final scene of the play:    In the final scene of Othello, the hero, with that utter lack of self-consciousness of self-criticism which is the height of human vanity, strikes a heroic attitude, makes an eloquent plea for himself, at the height of his eloquence stabs himself – and the innocent spectator feels a lump in his throat or dissolves in te... ... of the play is a pleasant surprise.    Despondent Othello, grief-stricken by remorse for the tragic mistake he has made, acts heroically, following the example of Emilia. He stabs himself and dies on the bed next to the one he has wronged.    WORKS CITED    Bradley, A. C.. Shakespearean Tragedy. New York: Penguin, 1991.    Gardner, Helen. â€Å"Othello: A Tragedy of Beauty and Fortune.† Readings on The Tragedies. Ed. Clarice Swisher. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1996. Reprint from â€Å"The Noble Moor.† British Academy Lectures, no. 9, 1955.    Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http://www.eiu.edu/~multilit/studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos.    Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1957.               

Time I Learned a Lesson

While living in a state as hot as Arizona, not only do the football players have to drink a lot of water, but everyone else as well. The day I didn't taught me a lesson: Actions, good or bad, are followed with consequences. I thought my body would be perfectly fine without some water for the day but boy was I wrong. Just minutes before the incident, the only Item on my mind was how fun the rap concert would be the following night. Little did I know, I would not be attending.A late night trip to Albertson Isn't rare for my family as we forget things tie easily (and when I say we I mean I). I entered Albertson with a mental list of Ethylene, snacks, and Storage. Yet, I still made my way to the ice cream aisle as I seem to always be gravitated towards it. Him, what flavor sounds good? Ben and Jerry Peach Cobbler gets me every time! I reach out to grab that perfect concoction and smack! My body now lays lifeless on the floor as I blackout. Seconds, minutes, maybe hours later I become con scious. I make an effort to move my limbs but there's no use.My heavy eyelids have a arid time opening, I force them open and find myself in a hospital bed wearing one of those dresses I promised myself I'd never wear. My eyes find their way to the side of my bed where my motherly sits, pale skinned, and mouthing my name. Her voice finally registers Into my head as it translates from terrified to joyful. My very own nurse rushes In once I'm awake. She tries her hardest to talk slowly and uses hand gestures to explain why I'm here, why I'm lifeless, and why I'm wasn't eating my ice cream in the comfort of my own home.I had blacked out for several hours. Well that was an unexpected nap, I thought to myself. My nurse says the word dehydrated and it clicks my mental grocery list. There was Ethylene for my headache, snacks for nauseates, and Storage for extreme thirst. How could I be so stupid? The next day my life carried on normally: I woke up, ate, went to school, ate, napped, ate, di d my homework, ate, and slept. Of course there was a lot more water in my system compared to the day before, but drinking more water wasn't the lesson learned.I could have been testing and driving, or not completing a homework assignment but the point was the same; there were consequences to my every move. I could've been In a car accident or simply slotting In SAD with a bunch of kids I TLD know. It's your own choices that make you or break you In this life, what will you choose? And will you be prepared for the consequences that follow? BY excellencies English II- Period 3 A typical sight in the halls of Hamilton High School are the tall and built young men of was I wrong.Just minutes before the incident, the only item on my mind was how fun attending. A late night trip to Albertson isn't rare for my family as we forget things quite easily (and when I say we I mean l). I entered Albertson with a mental list of finally registers into my head as it translates from terrified to Joyfu l. My very own nurse rushes in once I'm awake. She tries her hardest to talk slowly and uses hand I could've been in a car accident or simply sitting in SAD with a bunch of kids I didn't know. It's your own choices that make you or break you in this life, what will you

The Use of Mixed Narrative in Anthills of the Savannah

Explore the uses and effects of mixed narrative in Anthills of the Savannah By Emmanuel Sunil Anthills of the Savannah is set in the fictitious West African country of Kangan, a country which has been overrun with political instability ever since becoming an independent state from British rule. The novel centers on the lives of three civil servants, Christopher Oriko, Ikem Osodi and Beatrice Naynibuife, and all three serve three separate narrative voices in the novel, each sharing his or her own point of view. This provides the reader with a 360 degree picture of the situation by offering multiple points of view as well as enabling the reader to make judgments for him/ herself rather than relying on a narrator or a single character to supply descriptions of people and events. In this essay I shall consider detail the narrative roles of all three characters of the novel. Christopher Oriko is the Commissioner of Information in the cabinet of His Excellency, Sam. His duties bring him to close proximity to Sam and thus we obtain an insiders account of the political situation in Kangan. Chris informs us in the very first chapter of Sam’s frequent mood swings. In fact he goes as far as to say that â€Å"days are good or bad for us now according to how His Excellency gets out of bed in the morning†. Here, Chris indicates the dictatorial nature of Sam thus setting a stage for the instability in the government. Chris also has a very realistic opinion of the situation and he is careful in pushing for reform than his close friend Ikem, who he thinks is far too sensitive to the danger of angering Sam. A topic which is often considered in Chris’ narrative is the futility of Ikems editorials which makes Sam consider him as treacherous. Chris often defends Ikem; however he is getting â€Å"tired â€Å"of doing so. This difference in opinion and the fact that Ikem has more freedom leaves Chris with growing resentment towards Ikem, and the two seem to be drifting further apart as the novel progresses: â€Å"I can’t talk to Ikem any more. I am tired. And drained of all stamina†, says Chris in chapter eight. Ikem Osodi , who has replaced Chris as the editor of the state controlled National Gazette, feels that â€Å"the situation in Kangan can only be improved hrough reform†. The editor often writes sharp and editorials full of criticism towards the government, giving insights to the problems in Kangan (for example public executions). Ikem states that the best weapon against ineffective government is passion: â€Å"Passion is our hope and strength†, so mething that he feels immensely strong about and also reflects in his work, for example â€Å" Hymn to the Sun†, where Sam is compared to the sun as a metaphor to something that is immensely powerful yet equally destructive. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, His editorials often put him in conflict with Chris, who is now Ikem’s boss, however Ikem refuses any interference towards his work: â€Å"as long as I remain the editor, I shall not seek anybody’s permission to what I write†, however he still acknowledges that â€Å"there is a big danger doing this†. Despite the fact that he is an extremist, Ikem also adds humor through sarcasm ( â€Å"following a leader who follows his leader would be quite a circus†), and thus making the novel quite amusing at times. Beatrice Naynibuife is Chris’ girlfriend and also works in the government (in the ministry of finance). She has been intimate with Ikem, Sam and Chris at some point in her life and even though she is engaged in a relationship with Chris, she still gives us an unbiased outsider’s opinion about the situation between the three of them. For example in chapter five, she claims that â€Å"all three of you, are incredibly conceited. The story of this country, as far as you are concerned, is the story of the three of you. Although much of her narrative concerns her own past, she also tries to bridge the ever developing gap between Chris and Ikem; in chapter eight she tries to persuade Chris to talk to Ikem and work together to solve the mounting crisis of Sam’s power hunger ( trying controlling power similar to Idemili). Apart form these three; an unknown narrator also exists in the novel. While he does not give us any personal opinions like the other narrators, he give s details into African traditions such the story of the goddess Idemili. The different narrators of the novel give us different opinions about the same events that occur, and this as stated in the introduction gives a full and accurate picture of the current situation in the country. It is surprising that despite the novel being about the political instability and the unfortunate condition of the people; it is only the upper class that has a voice in the novel; a kind of metaphor indicating the division in the society and proving that it is only the upper class that has the power to bring about reform. Also, the mixed narratives do not follow a chronological pattern, which could symbolize the general state of confusion in the country. Achebe's use of multiple narrative voices indicates that history is more than a set of events in the past to be told; it is also the feelings and ideas that different people have about the events and at the same time focuses on the community rather than on the individual

Theories of Attachments

Theories of attachment 1) â€Å"cupboard love† theories – psychodynamic/behaviourists 2) The ethological approach 3) Bowlbys evolutionary theory 4) Social learning theory Studying attachments and their loss can help us understand how early relationship experiences can affect later development What is attachment? An intense emotional relationship that is specific to two people that endure over time.Prolonged separation brings stress and sorrow 1, â€Å"cupboard love† theory – psychodynamic theory Sigmund Freud developed a theory of personality, to explain how each person’s personality develops he proposed that attachment grew out of the feeding relationship Key The psychodynamic approach analyses the psyche (your mind) i. e. it breaks down into constituent parts such as the id/ego/superego Psychoanalysts (like Freud) believe that:All babies are born with an innate drive to seek pleasure; Freud called this the pleasure principle Freud said there is a particular structure of the personality that is motivated by this principle: the id The id is the primitive part of our personality, which demands immediate satisfaction; all people pass through psychosexual stages. First stage of psychosexual development is oral, thus babies demand oral satisfaction The mother is the first love object because she feeds the child and so an attachment is formed. Freud saw this the first relationship as the foundation the foundation of all others.Infants attach to their caregivers (usually the mother) because of the caregivers ability to satisfy its instinctual needs. Quality of attachment and future relationships Healthy attachments are formed when the feeder practices to satisfy the infants needs, unhealthy attachments are formed when infants are deprived or over indulged. If the child’s first relationship is loving, the child develops the ability to love, if not, adult relationships will be unsatisfactory Consequences If an infant is deprive d at an oral stage, she/he will become fixated at this stage.Consequently, psychoanalysts stress the value of feeding, especially breast feeding. *research evidence does not supports this theory because the person who provides food does not always become the primary attachment object, evidence against this theory is the same for the learning theory. Learning theory Behaviourists believe that : Infants attach to those who satisfy their psychological/physical needs Learning theorists/behaviourists believe all behaviour is acquired through conditioning: 1)classical conditioning 2)operant conditioning Or through imitation 3)social learning theoryBehaviourism Classical operant 1) Classical conditioning Food (unconditioned stimulus) produces pleasure (unconditioned response) So becomes associated with the person doing the feeding, who then becomes (conditioned stimulus) who now also produces pleasure even when no food. Babies associate caregivers with gratification, and learn to approach caregivers to have their needs met, they feel secure whenever caregiver is present Attachment works both ways Mothers get: Positively reinforced -by the baby smiling and developingNegatively reinforced -by the cessation of crying 2) Operant conditioning Dollard and miller (1950) adopted this principle To incorporate the concept of the mental states, a hungry baby feels uncomfortable creating a drive to reduce to comfort, when a baby is fed the drive is reduced, providing a sense of pleasure ( a reward) Food becomes the primary reinforce because it reinforces behaviour to avoid discomfort so becomes the secondary reinforce (conditioned) Social learning theory Babies learn by imitation, modelling a direct reinforcement.Hay and vespo believe parents deliberately teach their children to love them, by modelling affection parents also teach children in an explicity way to show affection * We learn through association and reinforcement but food may not be the main reinforce Harry Harlow ch allenges behaviourists and psychoanalytic â€Å"cupboard love† theory -study of the rhesus monkey -study of Scottish infants The ethological approach -ethology is the study of animal behaviour, in its natural environment Ethos=habit, manner Ethnologists introduced the concept of â€Å"attachment† ImprintingSome animals such as : sheep, geese for rapid attachments very soon after birth they attach to any moving individual present and follow them ,as if they were their mother. Lorenz (1935) called this imprinting *made geese follow him* Imprinting has: -short term consequences safety -long term consequences reproduction Definition of imprinting The tendency of non-humans to form a strong bond with the first moving object they see typical in precocial (new-born can move around) species like lambs, foals Imprinting doesn’t occur because the caregiver feeds the new-born, e. . goslings which contradicts the â€Å"cupboard love† theory Imprinting is a fixed acti on pattern (fad) i. e. a behaviour that occurs in response to a species – specific stimulus, once imprinting has occurred, it is irreversible Critical period Imprinting must occur within a critical period, if biological characteristics don’t develop at a specific time, then they never will research shows that the critical period can be extended by changing environment Sensitive period Some ethnologists say† instead of a critical period, there is a sensitive period: i. . a time when learning is most likely to happen, will occur most easily but learning can still occur at other times *imprinting in humans* Imprinting research mostly with animals Humans :Klaus and kennels skin to skin hypothesis (1976) There is a sensitive period immediately after birth when bonding can occur through skin-to –skin contact, a year later these mothers and babies had stronger attachments But Goldberg (1983) found that the effects of early contact are small and short-lived

The Phenomenon of Late Marriage in China

The Phenomenon of Late Marriage in China It is a generally noted phenomenon that Chinese tend to get married later than they used to especially in big cities. Across the country, we observe virtually everywhere that the rate of marriage becoming lower year after year. Chinese used to marry before twenty- five years old. But now, some youngsters go study further; some devoted in their career; some who have dated one after other still refuse to step into the palace of marriage. Careful observation and elaborate thinking convinced me that the issue happens because of the objective and subject.According to a survey conducted by Chinese Academy of Social Science, the number of marriage continues to decline especially in big city. (The Chinese get married late increasingly)But why does this happen? And how will it affect the future? While thinking deeply, I came up with some ideas about this issue. Objectively thinking, the overload burden takes too much pressure to the youngsters. Pressur e like educations, works, transportations, houses, love comes form every where occupy youngsters’ whole lives.Firstly, the price of houses is too high for youngster to support. House slaves, also called Ant people, stands for people who usually work in big city have lots of housing debt to support. You definitely need to have a shelter before getting married. Secondly, transportation occupies too much time. Neither do they have time to date someone, nor do they get married. Thirdly, low employment rate nowadays, youths trend to study further than before in order to avoid the pressure. All of above will probably make youths get married late.Thinking logically at first, many people get married later just because they are not ready to get married. It can be divided into two aspects. One is material basis, the other is mental. Speaking of material basis, youths between twenty and thirty don’t have economy standard. And people still in school are fed by their parents. Appar ently their mental isn’t mature enough. In fact, getting married is the start of a new life. Setting up your own family means a lot of responsibility. As an old saying goes,† It’s easy to get the spark of love, but it’s difficult to keep it†.For instance, after getting married, wives need to get up early to prepare the breakfast for husbands; husbands have to work harder than before in order to support the family; couples suppose to remember the date of each other’s birthday; and they’d better to have a good relationship with lover’s relatives. No wander of saying goes,† Marriage is the tomb of love†. Secondly, owing to the pressure coming from all over the work, study, house debt and transportation, love may fade away. All these scared the youth who are in the right age of marriage. For example, pressure like transportation occupies too much time.Neither do they have time to date someone, nor do they get married. And the issue of house slaves coming to an essential topic these days has deeply been debated. House slaves, also called Ant people, stands for people who usually work in big city have lots of housing debt to support. In China, a shelter is definitely a necessity before getting married. But the price of the house is too high to be paid by poor youths. What’s more, youths who graduated from school just started work need to pay most of the time on their work. With the low employment rate nowadays, youths trend to study further than before in order to avoid the pressure.All of above will probably make youths get married late. Moreover, thoughts of Chinese are changing today! In the ancient time, Chinese got married mainly because they want to have babies to carry on the family lines. But nowadays, Chinese get married because they finally find their soul mates. Form person perspective, ‘One Child Policy ‘makes Chinese grown up in the 80’s be used to being alone. T hey grew up in the age of Internet. Variety kinds of entertainments scarify them and they spent less time with friends. So, many of them may probably have troubles in communicating with others.Finally, taking some individual cases into account, some environmentalists believe that the fewer newborns we have, the less polluted the planet will be. Because people have carbon emissions during their whole life and too much carbon emissions will intensified greenhouse effect and enlarge the hole in the ozone layer. This case may not hold an important role as the upper points. It still be mentioned considering of academic cautious. After considering of all these causes, let’s focus the attention on its effects. Thinking of the present only, single people will have more time hanging out late at night.And this will probably raise the rate of crime. While thinking further, some people believe that getting married later can slow down the population growth rate of China. As the large popu lation provides heavy burden for China, it benefits to the whole country because. While others advocate that this point of view is short-sighted. Assuming birth rate continues decreased in decades. Time flies fast and youths won’t be young anymore. Fewer youths working than before will slow down the speed of economic developing. An awareness of this issue, Chinese government has already put out series policy to change the status.Considering of the high price of house, government has taken some specific measures to restrain the high speed increase of price. They also built up some apartments in low price and provided for the poor. New policies are beginning to effect. But there still have lots of things to do. While observing all over the world, many countries especially the developed countries are disturbed by the low rate of birth. So this issue becomes a global issue that should be aware by all the people. Chinese Academy of Social Science. The Chinese get married late incr easingly. 2008. 17 Jan. < http://jnrb1. e23. cn/html/dsnb/20080117/dsnb43308. html>

Student Anaylsis on FritoLay's Dips Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Student Anaylsis on FritoLay's Dips - Essay Example Frito-Lay's capacity to realize this strategic objective is predicated on the company's ability to accurately identify the relevant strategic issues, understand the challenges to the realization of this goal, and analyze and evaluate its position. This report shall do just that, concluding with a set of recommendations. Frito Dips has been a major player in the salty snacks market with 33% market share. It is North America's largest and most popular snack food manufacturer, and controls a good third of the salty-snack market. Its position in the dips market, however, is unstable. This is largely because of the reputation of its competitors, which include Borden and Kraft, not to mention several local companies who are also determinedly trying to capitalize on the popularity of cheese dips' market. The fact is that the reputation of both Borden and Kraft in the cheese dip market function as an immediate obstacle to Frito-Lay's capacity to realize its strategic objective vis--vis the cheese dips' market. Considering Frito-Lay's supremacy in the salty snacks market and its status as an untested brand in the cheese dips market, several questions impose themselves upon us. As the company has enjoyed a solid profitability base, the question that now arises is how to sustain profit levels in the dips category The major problem lies in how to develop Frito Lays dips and capitalize on the new shelf stable sour cream based dip to maintain the high growth rates the company has achieved in recent years. Would the best future strategy be to pursue an aggressive promotion in the market for the chip-dip category which appears to be reaching saturation levels or develop the vegetable-dip category, which requires the development of new modes of marketing and entry into a hitherto unfamiliar market Indeed, the question is whether or not entry into segments of the snack food market where Frito-Lay does not have the consumer-base its competitors do and which already appear to be highly saturated is w ise. If there are profits to be accrued and a market segment to be capitalized upon, should Frito-Lay, Inc. seek entry into the cheese or the vegetable dips' markets Answers shall be provided in the form of recommendations, following a critical evaluative analysis of the market and Frito-Lay's position therein. Analysis and evaluation: The popularity of dips in general, as accompaniments to snacks and vegetables has grown in recent years. The vast majority of sales, however, estimated at 80%, occur through supermarket outlets, in addition to which, 45% of available dips are of the shelf stable variety. Out of the total $650 million in annual sales for all types and kinds of dips, the latter accounts for $185 million. Two-thirds of the available dips are the prepared, ready-to-serve, variety while the remainder is comprised of different kinds of dip mixes to be prepared at home. Sour cream based dips are most popular, accounting for 50% of total sales. The popularity of Mexican foods